This invention relates to processes for making phosphorus compounds R2P\u2014X\u2014PR2, R2P-M, R2P-L and R3P, and the novel cation R2P+-X\u2014P+R2, where R represents an optionally substituted hydrocarbyl group, X represents a bridging group, L represents a leaving group and M represents an alkali metal atom. The image of a standard object is captured to extract a characteristic value from the teacher image of the standard object through image processing while making a user input the already-known knowledge for a configuration of an object and an object such as a tolerance and entering the knowledge in a knowledge base. The apparatus further includes transfer units to multiple-transfer developed images formed on the recording medium sequentially on a material to be transferred which is conveyed along the conveying path. The thermoelectric semiconductor unit controller causes the thermoelectric semiconductor unit to radiate heat, and causes the thermoelectric semiconductor unit to absorb heat.