Apparatuses and methods are provided for the continuous, roll-to-roll formation of photovoltaic cells. In either case, the cell has a negative electrode of lithium or of an anode material which is capable of intercalating and de-intercalating lithium coupled with a positive electrode of a cathode active material. The impedance element has real and reactive components, a first current carrying terminal electrically coupled to an output of the DAC and a second current carrying terminal electrically coupled to the input of the ADC. The CSF is cooled and a temperature value of the CSF is measured in accordance with the cooling.