Substrates, optionally coated with an undercoating, having grafted thereto one or more non-fouling materials are described herein. The system includes a primary winding configured to receive an input voltage, an a secondary winding coupled to the primary winding and configured to, with one or more first components, generate, at an output terminal, an output voltage and an output current. The metric is determined during a computer operation that may include a thread or job, and that may span an interval or period of intervals. Each rate of change is mapped to a color or a shade of gray and the color or shade of gray of each rate of change is mapped to a position in an image corresponding to the position of the corresponding optical element in the field-of-view. In the deposition of the liquid substance on the carrier by the introduction of the liquid substance into the carrier from the bottom face thereof, a water-detecting sensor detects the liquid level near the top face of the carrier. The piezoelectric film may be deposited directly onto a single crystal silicon substrate.